CHAPTER 3 
CONCERNING THE KONJAKU 
MONOG ATARI 
IN The Konjaku Monogatari, or Tales, Present and Past, 
you will find many stories relative to Kitsuné and the 
book treats of Kitsuné, in literature, as a hero or heroine, 
for the first time in Japan. It is appropriate, therefore, to say 
a few words concerning the book and its author. 
The Konjaku Monogatari is a rare book written by 
Minamoto-no-Takakuni, known as Uji Dainagoft (1004- 
1077) in the closing years of the Heian Era (781-1185). 
The oldest as a collection of narratives in Japanese, the 
book consists of 31 volumes, divided into Three Sections: 
Tenjiku (ancient name for India), Shintan (ancient name for 
China) and Japan. 
A wonderful book, this. The author was evidently a man 
who read extensively and learned abundantly by hearsay. 
He possessed many friends in every walk of life. He was 
energetic, systematic, accurate, and wrote with a powerful 
pen. Nobody could hope to start such a great work, and 
finish with success, unless he were a man holding views 
above the general level of opinion. 
In the book, the Section of Tenjiku comes first, 
followed by Shintan and Japan. The author compiled the 
book in this order out of respect toward Tenjiku, the 
country in which Buddhism arose and where Sakyamuni 
was born and Shintan, the country of culture the two 
great nations to which Japan owed a debt of gratitude. 
Why did Takakuni write this book of narratives, 
comparable only with such books as AEsop's Fables or The 
Arabian Nights' Entertainments? Did he finish the work 
just finding it an occupation to his taste? Without any 
meaning? Without any prime object? And did he simply 
endeavor to collect and record tales of a strange nature? 
In Japan, in the latter part of the remote ages, Buddhism, 
became more and more popular, and it was at the zenith of 
its prosperity in the early years of the 9th century after the 
brilliant Nara Era (645-780). Meanwhile, with the lapse of 
time, the old trend of things had been superseded by the 
traditions of China, and those of India coming through 
China had a great influence on the Japanese people in 
ideas and in knowledge. 
The author of The Konjaku Monogatari, no doubt, added 
the two sections of Tenjiku and Shintan for the purpose of 
enlightening people concerning the two great countries of 
culture and wisdom. Takakuni told them, through his work, 
of things which were being preached and observed in 
Tenjiku and Shintan as the truth, and therefore, he thought, 
should be observed in Japan. 
Takakuni taught in his narratives that the law of
nature was firm and stable forever, like the sun shining 
high up in the sky. And he preached by telling them that it 
was Buddhism that taught them this everlasting truth. He 
informed them of the importance of knowing the great 
truth of samsara, or transmigrationism, and karma or 
inevitable retribution. 
With this in mind, Takakuni gave to the Japanese people 
the narratives he had garnered. Therefore on many 
occasions, he never forgot to tell the people of karma, the 
inevitable consequences of some fault committed in a 
previous state of existence even when he was speaking of 
worldly things. However it is interesting to see that he was, 
on the other hand, a humorous person, a fact shown well in 
some of his tales. 
The Konjaku Monogatari teaches us to be grateful, 
sympathetic, to keep to our sphere in life warning us not 
to despise other people, not to be captivated by beautiful 
women, not to go anywhere without any knowledge of the 
place, not to confide in anybody (reflecting the conditions 
of life in those days) even in one's wife, and so on. 
The Genji Monogatari, written by Murasaki Shikibu, 
Lady Purple, deals almost exclusively with the life of the 
upper classes. When we read the Genji, the Book of Love 
and Romance of the handsome Imperial prince and the 
beautiful ladies, we breathe the very air of the brilliant 
Heian Era with the Court noblemen, effeminate and 
superstitious and the gay and intellectual noblewomen. 
In The Konjaku Monogatari, however, we meet the 
common people as well as noblemen and noblewomen. 
And the fact that Buddhism, especially the Tendai sect (a 
sect the fundamental doctrine of which is the Sutra of the 
Lotus) was prevalent at that time is clearly reflected in the 
writing. 
Takakuni also extolls the benevolence of Kanzéon, or the 
Goddess of Mercy, and Jizo, the guardian deity of children. 
He believes in the transmigration of the soul. Many 
phantoms in various forms including Kitsuné appear in the 
narratives. However as in the case of later years, they are 
not ferocious or wicked in nature. They are, to my mind, 
rather good-natured, and they reveal their true character 
easily when cornered. 
Minamoto-no-Takakuni came of a noble family. His 
grandfather was an Imperial prince of the Emperor Daigo 
(385-930); and Fujiwara-no-Michinaga, the most influential 
Prime Minister in the age, was his uncle. Still, according to 
the records, he was democratic enough to invite travelers 
passing in front of his mansion at Uji, near Kyoto, the 
capital; and he wrote The Konjaku Monogatari by listening 
to what they told him. 
Reading the book, we learn the manners and customs, the 
thoughts, morality and superstitions of the people of the 
Heian Era as well. 
Now before we proceed with such tales as those found in 
The Konjaku Monogatari, containing a great number of the 
foxes resorting to their subtle art of bewitchery, we deem it 
necessary to tell you concerning the matter of 
metamorphosis in general.
It is true that the folklore relative to such a thing as 
bewitchery, or metamorphosis, is now regarded as 
concerning things of the past. However in Japan, the idea 
of the mysterious power of Kitsuné is deep-rooted among 
the populace; and a superstition such as Inu-gami1 or Hébigami
2 is still prevalent in some rural districts in the country, 
and the case of Kitsuné-mochi3 or Izuchi-mochi4 is also 
prevalent in some part of Japan. 
Such things as these, no doubt, are a superstition 
fermented by tradition. However it cannot be denied that 
there is in each of them a fixed form. Why there is such 
a fixed form? 
Now let us study the metamorphosis tradition of such an 
animal as Kitsuné. In the form of metamorphosis, there is a 
difference between the case of a human being turning 
himself into an animal; and the case when an animal 
changes its shape into a human being. An interesting 
contrast will be observed between these cases. 
And there is also a forma fixed one in the conjugal 
relation between human beings and animals in tradition. 
For instance, there exists in legend some hindrance in the 
marriage of human being and serpents 
1 Literally, Dog-god. A sort of possession by evil spirits. The natural shape of it, 
however, is not a dog. Supposed to be an animal about the size of a rat with a 
supernatural power. 
2 Literally, Snake-god. A sort of possession by the evil spirit of a small snake. 
3 A specific family supposed to have a supernatural power through the influence of 
Kitsuné. 
4 Same as Kitsuné-mochi.
(as seen in the case of a man marrying a serpent in the 
guise of a charming girl, in The Ugétsu Monogatari by 
Akinari), or otters or badgers, animals supposed to have the 
power of turning themselves into human forms. In the case 
of the union of human beings and foxes, they do not have 
any such drawback. 
In the tradition of a human being changing his form into 
that of an animal, there is no record of matrimony between 
the person changing his form and other human beings. 
However, in the case of an animal changing its shape into 
that of a human being and the real human being, you will 
find many tales of matrimony. 
The case of the human being changing his form into such 
an animal as a fox or the case of the human being joining 
the fox family by marrying a fox will be found in the 
legends of China. However in the case of the latter, the 
form of the human being is not changed: He will just 
become a fox-man without changing his form, though 
perhaps, a slight change may be seen in his appearance or 
voice. 
In this connection, it may be added that there are many 
stories of foxes turning themselves into women, but no 
stories of women assuming the shape of foxes in any 
Japanese fox-tradition. 
There are various ways in the art of bewitching men on 
the part of Kitsuné. The method of metamorphosis differs 
according to the districts. Kitsuné is supposed to emit fire, 
Kitsuné-bi, by stroking its busy tail. And it is also believed 
that it will put a skull on its head and bow in veneration to 
the Dipper before turning itself into a human shape. When 
the skull does not
fall off, it will be able to turn itself into a human form 
successfully, it is said. 
As the method of assuming a human form, especially a 
beautiful girl, Kitsuné adopts the process of covering its 
head with duckweed or reeds. Japan's fox is an expert in 
changing itself into any form, and its specialty is assuming 
the shape of a charming and seductive woman, to captivate 
a young man and an old gentleman susceptible to female 
charms. 
According to the fox-marriage legend, the fox in the 
guise of a pretty woman will lead men into temptation to 
satisfy its desire. All the foxes will turn themselves into the 
shape of fascinating women and exhaust the energy of their 
victims. The men victimized, it is believed, are to die, 
sooner or later. 
Kitsuné, as you will read in such a book as The 
Konjaku Monogatari, is an animal wanton by nature. It 
is supposed to satisfy its desire by having relations with 
men through the art of bewitchery. Apart from the 
question of the possibility of this, you will notice, in the 
fox tradition, that Kitsuné is making use of its superior 
brains in various ways in bewitching men. This is the 
time-honored tradition of Japan in regard to the 
bewitchery of Kitsuné.